Experience as Direction

Class Review 6

Experience as Direction

                I found interesting. That was one of mr.Lala’s slide of powerpoint tittle. On Friday, 14^th 2014 at 06.00 WIB, we started the earlier class. What interesting that he showed us is something like improving our quality of written.  It was about constructing suggestion. He told us about literacy and enlightened first. Those are our start of teaching. We learned what the mean of them.

               

Quote of the Day

§  Mereka yang tercerahkan – kaum literat.

§  Meniru adalah bagian penting dari menemukan lalu menciptakan.

            When we learned about creating something new, there is statement that the discoverer or even the greatest people will not skip a step. The step has three part, from the beginning process till the destination thing that literate person have to build in their life for making any great written, such as :

            Emulate , discover and create. It means that literate side should be touched by the author, creator or even discoverer. As fowler said (1996 : 10) that as the literate people, the enlightened person, they would has to understand the values and also change in values and changes in formations. When we touched ideology, it means that ideology is off course both a medium and an instrument of historical processes (1996 : 12).  Also, what mr.Lala found interesting in Fowler (1996 : 10) are synchronically and diachronically.

           

Another Crucial Reminder

            Before we develop an argument on any topic, we have to collect and organize evidence. And then look for possible relationship between known facts (such as surprising contrast or similarities) and think about the significance of those relationship.

            Does my thesis pass the “so what? Test?”. If the reader first response that, then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship or to connect a larger issue. to connect to a larger issue. Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It’s o.k. to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary. Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s first response is “how?” or “why?” your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the reader a better take on your position right from the beginning.

            Little question or it called little doubt of reader may judge your written as their thought as doubt. What writer have to do is eliminate those probably question. Focus to the topic and create something interest for the reader. Questioning like why, so what, how and others will not appear anymore if you write as best or as creative as you can.

About Link

Critical Discourse Analysis

[Jaffer Sheyholislami]

Evolution of CDA

            In the late 1970s, Critical Linguistics was developed by a group of linguists and literary theorists at the University of East Anglia (Fowler et. al., 1979; Kress & Hodge, 1979).Their approach was  based on Halliday's Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). CL practitioners such as Trew (1979a, p. 155) aimed at "isolating ideology in discourse" and showing "how ideology and ideological processes are manifested as systems of linguistic characteristics and processes." This aim was pursued by developing CL's analytical tools (Fowler et al., 1979; Fowler, 1991) based on SFL.

            Following Halliday, these CL practitioners view language in use as simultaneously performing three functions: ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions. According to Fowler (1991, p. 71), and Fairclough (1995b, p. 25), whereas the ideational function refers to the experience of the speakers of the world and its phenomena, the interpersonal function embodies the insertion of speakers' own attitudes and evaluations about the phenomena in question, and establishing a relationship between speakers and listeners. Instrumental to these two functions is the textual function. It is through the textual function of language that speakers are able to produce texts that are understood by listeners. It is an enabling function connecting discourse to the co-text and con-text in which it occurs.

1.Van Dijk (Socio-cognitive model)

           

            Among CDA practitioners, van Dijk is one of the most often referenced and quoted in

critical studies of media discourse, even in studies that do not necessarily fit within the CDA perspective (e.g. Karim, 2000; Ezewudo, 1998).

            By structural analysis, van Dijk posited analysis of "structures at various levels of description" which meant not only the grammatical, phonological, morphological and semantic level but also "higher level properties" such as coherence, overall themes and topics of news stories and the whole schematic forms and rhetorical dimensions of texts. This structural analysis, however, he claimed, will not suffice, for Discourse is not simply an isolated textual or dialogic structure. Rather it is a complex communicative event that also embodies a social context, featuring participants (and their properties) as well as production and reception processes. (van Dijk, 1988, p. 2)

            He believes that one who desires to make transparent such an ideological dichotomy in discourse needs to analyze discourse in the following way (1998b, pp. 61- 63):

a. Examining the context of the discourse: historical, political or social background

of a conflict and its main participants

b. Analyzing groups, power relations and conflicts involved

c. Identifying positive and negative opinions about Us versus Them

d. Making explicit the presupposed and the implied

e. Examining all formal structure: lexical choice and syntactic structure, in a way

that helps to (de)emphasize polarized group opinions

2. Wodak (Discourse Sociolinguistics)

            Discourse Sociolinguistics…is a sociolinguistics which not only is explicitly dedicated to the study of the text in context, but also accords both factors equal importance. It is an approach capable of identifying and describing the underlying mechanisms that contribute to those disorders in discourse which are embedded in a particular context--whether they be in the structure and function of the media, or in institutions such as a hospital or a school--and inevitably affect communication.

            Wodak's work on the discourse of anti-Semitism in 1990 led to the development of an

approach she termed the discourse historical method. The term historical occupies a unique place in this approach. It denotes an attempt on the part of this approach "to integrate systematically all available background information in the analysis and interpretation of the many layers of a written or spoken text" (1995, p. 209). The results of Wodak and her colleagues' study (Wodak et. al., 1990) showed that the context of the discourse had a significant impact on the structure, function, and context of the anti- Semitic utterances" (p. 209). Focusing on the historical contexts of discourse in the process of explanation and interpretation is a feature that distinguishes this approach from other approaches of CDA especially that of van Dijk.

3. Fairclough

            The third main approach in CDA is that of Fairclough whose theory has been central to

CDA over more than the past ten years. Fairclough, in his earlier work, called his approach to language and discourse Critical Language Study (1989, p. 5). He described the objective of this approach as "a contribution to the general raising of consciousness of exploitative social relations, through focusing upon language" (1989, p. 4). This aim in particular remains in his later work that further develops his approach so that it is now one of the most comprehensive frameworks of CDA.

     o Fairclough's framework for analyzing a communicative event

A) Text:

            The first analytical focus of Fairclough's three-part model is text. Analysis of text involves linguistic analysis in terms of vocabulary, grammar, semantics, the sound system, and cohesion-organization above the sentence level (Fairclough, 1995b, p. 57).

            According to Fairclough, any sentence in a text is analyzable in terms of the articulation of these functions, which he has relabeled representations, relations, and identities:

·          Particular representations and recontextualizations of social practice (ideational function) -- perhaps carrying particular ideologies.

·          Particular constructions of writer and reader identities (for example, in terms of what is highlighted -- whether status and role aspects of identity, or individual and personality aspects of identity)

·          A particular construction of the relationship between writer and reader (as, for instance, formal or informal, close or distant). (Fairclough, 1995b, p. 58)

B).Intertextuality and intertextual analysis:

            In this analytical framework, while there is linguistic analysis at the text level, there is also linguistic analysis at the discourse practice level that Fairclough calls "intertextual analysis"

            According to Fairclough (1995b), Intertextual analysis focuses on the borderline between text and discourse practice in the analytical framework. Intertextual analysis is looking at text from the perspective of discourse practice, looking at the traces of the discourse practice in the text.  Fairclough also identifies two types of intertextuality: "manifest intertextuality," and "constitutive intertextuality."

C) Sociocultural practice:

·         Additional considerations for analyzing media discourse

            Fairclough (1995b) posits that "an account of communication in the mass media must

consider the economics and politics of the mass media: the nature of the market which the mass media are operating within, and their relationship to the state, and so forth" (p. 36). Among the aspects and properties of mass media that have attracted attention are access to the media, economics of the media, politics of the media, and practices of media text production and consumption.

a) Access to the media:

            Access to discourse is a major (scarce) social resource for people, and that in general the elites may also be defined in terms of their preferential access to, if not control over public discourse. Such control may extend to the features of the context (Time, Place, Participants), as well as to the various features of the text (topics, style, and so on).

b) Economy of the media:

            According to Fairclough (1995b), "the economics of an institution is an important determinant of its practices and its texts". The mass media are no exception. Like other profit making institutions, the media have a product to sell. Their product is the audience of

interest to advertisers (Chomsky, 1989; Fairclough, 1995b).

c) The politics of media:

            The politics of media, according to Fairclough (199b, p. 36), should be considered in

media analysis as well. Many critics, (Chomsky, 1989; Fairclough, 1995b; Fishman, 1980; Fowler, 1991; Hackett, 1991; van Dijk, 1991, 1993), argue that the commercial mainstream media works ideologically and is in the service of the powerful, the elite, and the state. Fairclough (1995b) argues that media discourses "contribute to reproducing social relations of domination and exploitation".

d) Practices of media text production and consumption:

            Production and consumption of media texts are two other important dimensions of media

and their institutional practices. Production involves a set of institutional routines, such as news gathering, news selection, writing, and editing (Fairclough, 1995b; Fowler, 1991; van Dijk, 1993). Consumption mainly refers to the ways in which readers, in case of the written text (i.e. the press), read and comprehend text.

            Four additional consideration for analyzing media discourse above as the key concept. And also one does not have to carry out analysis at all levels but any level that might “be relevant to understanding the particular event”.

Conclusion

            So, the goal of this proposal is to provide a summary of CDA itself and relate it with our real assignment as implementation act. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) means that as a Fairclough state that text is the focus on. To criticilized a discourse or make some analysis, no successfully language or teaching without text. To know more how the text shape is, we start from being literate person. That is why CDA as a field that is concerned with studying analyzing written and spoken texts to reveal the discursive sources of power, dominance, inequality and bias. Also language is a social practice through wich the world is represented.